Assessing Climate Change Trends and Their Relationships with Alpine Vegetation and Surface Water Dynamics in the Everest Region, Nepal

The Himalayas, especially the Everest region, are highly sensitive to climate change. Although there research works on this region related cryospheric work, ecological understandings of alpine zone and impacts limited. This study aimed assess changes in surface water including glacier lake streamflow spatial temporal vegetation examine their relationships with climatic factors (temperature precipitation) during 1995–2019 Dudh Koshi river basin. In study, Landsat time-series data, European Commission’s Joint Research Center (JRC) ECMWF Reanalysis 5th Generation (ERA5) reanalysis temperature meteorological station data were used. It was found that glacial area volume expanding at rates 0.0676 0.0198 km3/year, respectively; average annual is decreasing rate 2.73 m3/s/year. Similarly, greening as indicated by normalized difference index (NDVI) increasing 0.00352 units/year. On other hand, mean shows an trend 0.0329 °C/year, precipitation also a significant negative monotonic trend. NDVI significantly correlated temperature. Likewise, expansion strongly minimum precipitation. Overall, we alteration ecosystem could impact water–energy–food nexus